Investigation of Teachers’ Educational Technology Standards Self-Efficacy

Bu arastirmanin temel amaci ogretmenlerin Egitim Teknolojisi Standartlarina Yonelik Oz-yeterliklerinin (ETSYO) incelenmesidir. Betimsel tarama ve iliskisel tarama yontemlerinin kullanildigi arastirmanin evrenini; 2014-2015 ogretim yilinin bahar donemi Diyarbakir ili merkez ilcelerinde bulunan ortaokul ve liselerde calisan ogretmenler, orneklemini ise kume ornekleme yontemiyle rastgele secilen ortaokul (n=10) ve liselerde (n=6) gorev yapan toplam 419 ogretmen olusturmaktadir. Ogretmenlerin okul kademesine, ogretmenlik deneyimlerine ve ogrenim duzeylerine gore ETSYO puanlari arasinda istatistiksel olarak anlamli farklilik bulunmazken, cinsiyet ve branslarina gore ETSYO puanlarinda anlamli farkliliklar gorulmustur. Regresyon analizinde, egitimde teknoloji kullanimina yonelik tutum ve teknolojiyi kullanarak dersi ile ilgili materyal gelistirme yeterligi degiskenlerinin ETSYO'yu aciklayan onemli degiskenler oldugu gorulmustur (R=.47; Duzeltilmis R2=.22; p=.00). Dersi planlamada ve derse hazirlanmada, ders iceriginin duzenlenmesinde, ders surecinde ve olcme degerlendirme sureclerinin tumunde Bilgi ve Iletisim Teknolojilerini (BIT) kullanan ogretmenlerin ETSYO puanlari, bu sureclerin birinde ya da birkacinda BIT kullananlara gore anlamli olcude yuksek cikmistir.


Introduction
The rapid pace of technological developments has created new cultural values and the changing conditions at global level have given rise to different domains of competency and proficiency in terms of use, and access to, information.Meeting the challenges of digital age is only possible through proper education of students who represent the future of communities.In this context, it is a must that teachers, the most important actors in this effort, have a certain competency profile in respect of educational technologies (Orhan, Kurt, Ozan, Som Vural &Türkan, 2014).Teachers need, in the first place, be properly equipped to meet the requirements of learning contexts so that individuals who can adapt themselves to changing conditions in the world can be raised.Educational systems must, therefore, be constructed in a way that they can rapidly respond to changing individual and social needs and teachers, especially, must be trained in light of this fact (Özcan, 2013).To ensure this transformation, teachers must have the ability to implement the technological innovations in learningteaching processes playing a leading role for students (Göktaş, Yıldırım & Yıldırım, 2009).On the other hand, teachers can be a hindering factor when they continue to insist on traditional understanding in respect of their knowledge basis and the related processes instead of adopting a modern learningteaching understanding.It is essential, for such a transformation, that all the actors in the educational system engage in collaborative efforts and especially meet certain international standards.
It is thought that educational technology competencies can only be achieved through adopting international standards and implementing these standards basing them on the class setting via effective models of technological integration.Designing the curriculum in line with this understanding is an important step for the transformation of educational system into one with modern features.To this end, it is thought that research should carried out to determine the degree of capacity and efficacy in certain levels of education (primary, secondary and higher education) as well as certain groups (teachers, students, administrators etc.) in line with the current criteria set out in previous research.
Nowadays, much research carried out by individuals or institutions are available which document the qualifications a teacher must have in this 21 st century in certain frameworks (Voogt & Roblin, 2010;Voogt & Roblin, 2012).It has become indispensable first to identify the competencies in respect of usage of technology in educational settings to define the standards of competencies teachers must have.Nonetheless, it is thought that defining the standards on how teachers can use technology in educational settings can make a contribution to qualify the process of technological integration in education, define the needs to enhance it and devise new plans.
The International Society of Technology in Education (ISTE) has defined the education technology standards for different groups such as students, educators, administrators, education coaches and computer science educators.According to the current standards for teachers established by ISTE in 2008, teachers having the skills proper for 21 st century are individuals who facilitate student learning and encourage their creative thinking designing the learning experiences in today's digital age, provide a model in terms of working understanding of digital age, understand the responsibilities of a digital citizen and participate in-school and out-of-school activities to improve their professional and leadership skills (ISTE, 2014).According to the ISTE Standards-T proposed in 2008, teachers should be able to: 1. Facilitate and inspire student learning and creativity: Teachers use their knowledge of subject matter, teaching and learning, and technology to facilitate student experiences enhancing student learning, creativity, and innovation in both face-to-face and virtual environments.
2. Design and develop digital age learning experiences and assessments: Teachers design, develop, and evaluate authentic learning experiences and assessments incorporating contemporary tools and resources to maximize content learning in context and to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes identified in the ISTE standards.
3. Model digital age work and learning: Teachers exhibit knowledge, skills, and work processes representative of an innovative professional in a global and digital society.
4. Promote and model digital citizenship and responsibility: Teachers understand local and global societal issues and responsibilities in an evolving digital culture and exhibit legal and ethical behaviour in their professional practices.
5. Engage in professional growth and leadership: Teachers continuously improve their professional practice, model lifelong learning, and exhibit leadership in their school and professional community by promoting and demonstrating the effective use of digital tools and resources (ISTE, 2014).
Even though there have been some research into this field in different levels in Turkey, a review of the literature reveals that there are no standards of educational technology set forth by the Ministry of Education (MoNE) and the Council of Higher Education (CoHE) or the framework that can provide guidelines in this field is not sufficient.However, the general competencies in the profession of teaching defined by the MoNE include 14 performance indicators regarding the use of technology in education (under the heading 'Information and Communication Technologies' or 'Use of Technology').The research carried out by Kabakçı-Yurdakul et al. (2014) in which they defined 6 competency fields, 20 competencies and 20 indicators by designing technopedagogical education based on teacher competencies in terms of national standards is an important publication realized in this field.However, the teachers' competencies in terms of integration of ICT in learning-teaching processes and qualifications in respect of professional development defined by Ilgaz and Usluel (2011) provide significant proposals which can well be put into practice in creating technology standards in the field of education.Besides, the issue has also attracted the interest of other researchers in Turkey.Çağlar (2012), for example, found that pedagogical practices regarding international standards of educational technology implemented by educators revealed certain weak points in terms of serving as a model in encouraging students in attitudes and behaviours.Çakır and Oktay (2013), on the other hand, showed that teachers actively used technology in the classroom environment, but they needed support and inhouse training to follow the advancing technologies and use them in an effective way.
Several digital sources and tools (e.g.Education Informatics Network, FATİH Project) are used today in teaching settings, but further theoretical and practical research are needed to investigate the competency levels of teachers in using these sources.The results of such research focusing on the competencies of teachers in terms of meeting the educational technology standards at national and international level can provide guidance and direction in terms of reviewing and designing pre-service and in-service trainings.Defining the strong and weak points of our teachers based on the standards set out by institutions that carry out research in this subject at international level will provide us insights in respect to global cooperation or competition.
The technology standards of education established by the International Society of Technology in Education (ISTE) for teachers is a standard framework that is widely used by universities, educational institutions and schools to integrate technology into learning and teaching processes.It is thought that it is of importance to define the realization level of these internationally acknowledged standards on the basis of teachers' self-efficacy levels in terms of applying these standards.Self-efficacy, an important notion within the social cognitive theory developed by Bandura, is one's personal judgement of her/his ability to accomplish a task by organizing the required actions (Bandura, 1977).According to Bandura (1995), the level of motivation, emotional condition and actions of people fundamentally depends on their belief on these beliefs rather than the actual condition itself.For this reason, the beliefs of people giving rise to their competencies should be investigated.Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) concluded that teachers' self-efficacy is their belief which makes them feel competent or effective in exercising certain professional skills such as the application of effective educational strategies, classroom management and better integration of students into t-he teaching process in the classroom.Even though teachers' self-efficacy levels have not been directly monitored in the present research, the authors believe that gaining an insight, within the concept of self-efficacy, into their views concerning their knowledge, skills, attitude or beliefs relating to technology standards in education would make a contribution to the literature in terms of defining their judgement about their capacity in meeting the requirements in this field.
The main objective of the present research is to investigate educational technology standards selfefficacy (ETSSE) of teachers.In this context, the research focuses on the following questions: 1. What is the distribution of teachers' ETSSE scores? 2. Is there a statistically significant difference between the ETSSE scores of teachers depending on their gender, branch, school stage they serve in, professional experience and degree of learning?
3. How and to what extent do the ETSSE scores explain the level of computer usage, internet usage, level of accessibility to technological resources at school, their attitudes towards technology usage in education and level of their skill in organizing the lesson content by using technology, and which parameters do predict ETSSE scores?
4. In which educational processes do the teachers use ICT and do their ETSSE scores show a statistically significant difference in respect to these processes?

Research Design
Survey, casual-comparative design and correlational design of quantitative research methods, were used in the present research.Survey design was used to determine the distribution and the level of teachers' ETSSE self-efficacy scores within general average and sub-dimensions.According to Karasar (2005), survey is a model based on survey arrangements used to obtain a general judgment about the whole or a part of a population consisting of a large number of elements or a sample or sampling of it.This design is based on a quantitative research in which tendencies, attitudes or views of individuals of a sampling selected from a population are investigated by means of a data collection tool suc as a questionnaire (Creswell, 2012).The casual-comparative design, on the other hand, is used to define the causes or the results of the differences between individuals or groups (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012).In this kind of studies, the causes and results of differences between human groups are defined without any intervention on the conditions and participants (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz & Demirel, 2008).Another purpose of the research is to investigate the ETSSE self-efficacy scores of teachers in terms of their competency level in computer usage, internet usage, and accessibility to technology sources at school, their attitudes in respect to using technology in education and their competency in developing material for lessons by using technology.Predictive research model, one of the correlational research designs, was used to define it.Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2012) suggest that the final variable can be estimated by the predicting variable when there is a relationship with sufficient size between two variables.

Population and Sampling
The population of the research was comprised of teachers who served in the primary and secondary schools in the nearby districts of Diyarbakır in the spring semester of the academic year of 2014-2015.The research sample consisted of 419 primary and secondary school teachers.Data were collected from teachers serving in 10 secondary schools and 6 high schools located in the district of Diyarbakır by means of cluster sampling method.In the spring semester of the academic year of 2014-2015, 6970 secondary and high school teachers served in the districts in the main town of Diyarbakır.In accordance with the sampling calculation for a population of 6970 persons, 365 persons must be reached when calculated with 5.00 % error margin in 95.00 % confidence interval.This means that the sample of the present research represents the research population.Examining the participants by demographic characteristics, we observe that the majority of them were men (62.10 %) and most of them served in secondary schools (69.90 %).When viewed by branches on the other hand, it is seen that the biggest group comprised of teachers serving in the branch of verbal-social sciences (Turkish, social science, history, geography, literature, philosophy, religious culture and ethics education, theology) with a participation rate of 35.80 %.It is observed that a minor number (9.00 %) of the participating teachers had graduate degree of learning and the participants showed a balanced distribution in terms of teaching experience.

Analysis of Data
In the analysis of data, arithmetic mean, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation were used to define the distribution of the ETSSE score of teachers in responding the first sub-question.The average of the scores obtained by ETSSE scale turned out to be as follows: 1.00-1.80:Strongly disagree, 1.81-2.60:Disagree, 2.61-3.40:Slightly agree, 3.41-4.20:Agree and 4.21-5.00:Strongly Disagree.Nevertheless, coefficient of variation (V) was used to get an idea about the distribution of the responses given by the participants.Güler (2011) suggests that the coefficient of variation (V) is a measure of dispersion giving the percentage of standard deviation in respect of arithmetic mean.A dispersion measure in 25<V shows that scores are heterogeneous, different from each other and the difference between scores is large; in this case the scores will have a more kurtosis distribution compared with the normal value.20<V<25 shows that there is a normal distribution while V<20 indicates that there is a homogenous distribution with similar scores with a small difference between them.In this case the scores will rather have a point distribution compared to normal values.
In the second sub-problem of the research, it was investigated whether or not the ETSSE scores showed a statistical difference in respect of various variables.First of all, the normality of ETSSE scores for every variable was investigated with Kolmogorov Smirnov and it was thereby observed that the data did not show normal distribution in all the independent variables.Analyses were accordingly carried out using Mann Whitney-U and Kruskall Wallis-H, both non-parametric tests.The level of significance in defining the significant differences is (p) .05.However, the significance level was divided with the number of groups, namely Bonferroni correction was executed, to reduce the possibility of finding an incidental significant difference in paired comparison in order to define the groups from which the significant difference results in Kruskall Wallis test.In the research, r values were used to define the effect size of the significant difference.Effect size is an indication of the practical significance of research results (Özsoy & Özsoy, 2013).r values for non-parametric tests were as follows: While .10-.29 indicates small effect size, .30-.50 shows medium and .50 and over a high effect size (Cohen, 1977;1988).
In the third sub-problem, regression analysis was carried out to find out whether or not the variables predicted the ETSSE scores.Sample size, missing data, normal distribution, linearity, residual and extreme values were examined before regression analysis was executed.For regression analysis, Leverage and Cook distance values were examined together with the extreme values and Mahalanobis values.Thereof, 4 observations were excluded from the analysis.KMO value calculated for sample adequacy is .95.This value is greater than .60 which is the smallest KMO value proposed by Pallant (2007), and Tabachnick and Fidell (2007).Besides, Chi-square value obtained in Bartlett test (χ 2 =10061.71,SD=780, p<.00) was found to be significant.No missing data were recorded in the research.VIF and Tolerance values were examined for multicollinearity.No multicollinearity problem was observed with the highest Tolerance value of .84 and the lowest VIF value of 1.19.Standardized surplus values were examined for normality and linearity.Accordingly, it was observed that the values turned out over .05(.20) in Kolmogorov Smirnov normality test and residual values showed a diagonal appearance in a linear form.
In the last sub-problem, ICT usage of teachers in educational processes was analysed by percentage and frequency.As it was the case in the analysis for the second sub-problem, it was investigated by means of Kruskall Wallis H test and Mann Whitney U test whether or not the ETSSE scores differentiated in respect to ICT processes.

Distribution of ETSSE Scores of the Teachers
The average scores of the responses teachers gave to ETSSE and its sub-dimensions are displayed in Table 2. Table 2 shows that the average scores of the teachers regarding ETSSE and its sub-dimensions vary between 3.66 -3.79 indicating an average response at the level of "Agree".It is seen that the responses of the participants show a homogeneous distribution (V<20).In respect of the response averages, the distribution of first and the last 5 items with the highest and lowest scores are indicated in the table below.Table 3 shows that the three items with the highest average (1, 4 and 6) are in the dimension "Facilitating and inspiring student learning and creativity".Besides it is also seen that 2 items in the dimension of "Engaging in professional growth and leadership'' also have high average scores among the first five items.The table indicates that the teachers mostly think that they can make use of technology to encourage the creative thinking of students than the other items.The coefficient of variation of the first 4 items with the highest average scores have a homogeneous distribution (V<20) while the fifth item shows a normal distribution (20<V<25).
Another result that emerges from Table 3 is that the last five items with the lowest average scores are from different dimensions (S1, S2, S4 and S5).In respect of the average scores, the statement "I can provide various digital learning environments that encourage students to interact with each other" has the lowest score.Besides, the coefficient of variation of the last five items shows a heterogeneous structure.We can say, based on this structure showing a wide range, that the teachers differently conceived the content of the items.
Assessment of Teachers' ETSSE Scores by Gender, Branch, Level of the School they serve in, Professional Experience and Degree of Learning Assessment by gender: A review of ETSSE scores indicate that, in accordance with the result of Mann Whitney -U test, there is a significant difference between women and men, although in minor scale in favour of men, only in the dimension (S3) 'modelling the working and learning understanding of the digital age'' (U= 16915.00; z=-3.14; p=.00; r=-.15).
Assessment by branches: Kruskall-Wallis H test was used to test the differences of teachers' scores of ETSSE and its sub-dimensions by branches.Scores of teacher groups in 10 branches in total were subjected to a comparison.The table indicates the existence of a significant difference of .05 in all the dimensions except for the dimension (S4) "Promoting and modelling digital citizenship and responsibility".In order to identify the branches between the scores where this significant difference has emerged, 225 paired comparisons were carried out with Mann Whitney -U test taking thereby Bonferroni correction (.05/10=.005) significance level.
In respect of general ETSSE scores, the paired comparisons showed that the ETSSE mean ranks of the teachers in the field of Information Technologies resulted to be higher, although in medium effect size, than those of the ones in the field of Science and Maths (U=381.00;p=.00;,and yet higher, but at small effect size than those of the teachers serving in field of Social sciences (U=678.00; z=-2.97; p=.00; r=-.24).While a significant difference was found at the level of .05 in S1 dimension in Kruskall-Wallis test, no significant difference was observed at the level of .01 that was taken into account in paired comparisons.In the comparisons executed in S2 dimension, the mean ranks of the teachers serving in the field of Information Technologies were found to be higher at medium effect size than those of the ones serving in the field of Science and Maths (U=394.50;p=.00;)and higher, but this time at small effect size than those of the ones serving in the branch of Verbal and Social Sciences (U=627.00;p=.00;.The comparisons conducted in S3 dimension indicated that the mean ranks of the teachers in the Branch of Information Technologies were higher at medium effect size than those of the teachers serving in the field of Science and Maths (U=309.50;p=.00;,and higher at medium effect size than those of the ones serving in the branch of Verbal and Social Sciences (U=512.00;p=.00;.The comparisons made in S5 dimension show, on the other hand, that the mean ranks of the teachers serving in the branch of Information Technologies were higher at medium effect size than those of the teachers teaching in the field of Science and Maths.(U=398.50;z=-3.40;p=.00; r=-.32) and higher at small effect size than those of the ones serving the branch of Verbal and Social Sciences (U=644.00; z=-3.17;p=.00; r=-.25).

Assessment of ETSSE scores by school level:
In respect of the average values of teachers' scores in ETSSE and its sub-dimensions, no significant difference was found in terms of whether or not they serve in a school of secondary or high school level.(ETTSE (U) = 1829.00;z=-1.51;p=.13).

Assessment of ETSSE scores by professional experience in the field of teaching:
Kruskall Wallis -H test was used to examine the differences of teachers' scores of ETTSE and sub-dimensions by their experiences in the field of education.The scores were compared in 5 experience groups (1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years, 20 years and over).The scores of teachers in ETSSE scale and sub-dimensions were compared by experience groups by means of Kruskall Wallis -H test at a significance level of .05.So, a significant difference was found in respect to the total scores of the ETSSE scale with (S2) 'designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments' and (S3) 'modelling digital age work and learning.'In order to identify the branches between the scores where the significant difference has emerged, several paired comparisons were carried out with Mann Whitney -U test taking thereby Bonferroni correction .05/5=.01 significance level (Akbulut, 2010).
Table 5 shows that there is a significant difference at small effect size between the ETSSE scores of teachers with 1-5 years of experience and those of the ones with a teaching experience of 15-20 years (U=1863.00; z=-2.64; p=.01; r=-.22).The comparison of teachers' experiences in respect to the scores in (S2) 'designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments' indicates that the scores of the teachers with 1-5 years of experience show a significant higher difference at small effect size compared with those of the ones with 11-15 years of experience (U=2539.50; z=-2.69; p=.01; r=-.21).The comparison of the scores in the sub-dimension of (S3) ''modelling digital age work and learning.'indicates that the scores of the teachers in the group with 1-5 years of experience were significantly higher than those of ones with an experience background of 15-20 years (U=1849.00; z=-2.71; p=.01; r=-.23).

Assessment of ETSSE scores by degree of learning:
The majority (91.00 %) of the individuals making up the sample of this research have undergraduate academic degree.In the analysis carried out by Mann-Whitney U test, no significant difference was found in the average scores of teachers by their degree of learning in ETSSE and all of its sub-dimensions.That is, no significant difference has been found between the ETSSE scores of the teachers with undergraduate degree and those who have graduate academic degree.

The Prediction of Teachers' ETSSE Scores through their Computer and Internet Usage Level, Possibilities of Accession to Technological Sources at School, their Attitude to Use Technology in Education and level of their Skills to Develop Material for Lessons by Using Technology
In terms of integration of technology in educational settings, computer and Internet usage levels of teachers, their attitudes in this respect, possibilities to access the related resources and their overall experience in this field can well be associated to their ETSSE scores.In this sub-problem, it is examined to what extent the indicated variables predict the ETSSE scores.The results of the regression analysis regarding the prediction of ETSSE scores by computer and internet usage level, level of accessibility to technological sources, attitudes in respect of the usage of technology in educational settings and development of materials for lessons by using technology indicate that there is a significant relation at medium level between these variables and ETSSE scores, R=.47; R 2 = .22;p<.00.It is found that the predicting variables explain 22.00 % of ETSSE scores.It is observed that there is a significant relation between the ETSSE scores and the variables regarding the attitudes in respect of usage of technology in educational settings and skills to develop materials for lessons using technology.

The Usage of ICT by Teachers in Educational Processes and the Assessment on Whether ETSSE Scores Differentiate in Terms of These Processes
In this sub-problem, the educational processes were identified in which teachers use ICT.In addition, ETSSE scores were compared on the basis of ICT usage in one or more of these processes.
Teachers were asked questions regarding four processes: Of the participating teachers, 394 from among 419 responded to the question on the educational processes where they make use of ICT.The results based on these 394 respondents show that teachers mostly use ICT in the planning and preparation processes for the course (25.10 %) and in the course of instruction (22.90 %).As the teachers marked one or more options, these options were handled in an integrated manner in themselves.So, the process of designing the course content and measurementassessment stands out as the process where the teachers use ICT at the minimum (2.10 %) level.Besides, of 394 respondents, only 6.40 % said that they used ICT in all the educational processes.Kruskall Wallis -H test was used to compare the ETSSE scores of those who use ICT in educational processes and Mann Whitney -U test was used for paired comparisons.
Table 8 shows that, in respect to ETSSE and sub-dimension scores, there is a statistically significant difference between the average scores of those who use ICT in educational processes.These differences are in the dimensions of S1, S2 and S3 at .05 significance level.
Mann Whitney U test was conducted to identify the groups in which these differences occurred.Bonferroni correction was made for group comparisons and the results of Mann Whitney -U test were determined in respect of .05/10=.005.The comparison of ETSSE scores in respect to ICT usage of teachers in education reveals that the scores of those who use ICT in all the educational processes (designing the course content -D, in the course of instruction-C, measurement and assessment-MA and planning course-P (D-C-MA-P ) were found to be significantly higher; at small effect size than those of the ones who use it only in the process of planning the course (U=829.50;z=-3.31;p=.00; r=-.28), at medium effect size than those of the teachers who use ICT only in designing course content (U=297.00;z=-2.88;p=.00; r=-.36) and at medium effect size than the scores of the teachers who use ICT only in the process of measurement-assessment (U=429.50; z=-3.71; p=.00; r=-.39).
The scores of S1 (Facilitating and inspiring student learning and creativity) of those who use ICT in all the D-C-MA-P processes were found to be higher at medium effect size than those who use ICT only in measurement and assessment processes (U=457.00;z= -3.55; p=.00; r=-.37).S2 (Designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments) scores of those who use ICT in all the D-C-MA-P processes were found to be significantly higher; at medium effect size than those who use ICT only in designing the course content (U=273.00;z=-3.21;p= .00;r= -.40), at small effect size than the scores of those who use it only in the course of instruction (U=820.50;z=-2.91;p=.00; r=-.26), at medium effect size than the teachers' scores who make use of ICT only in measurement and assessment process (U=412.00;z= -3.94; p= .00;r= -.41) and at medium effect size than the scores of the teachers who use ICT only in the planning and preparation process (U=798.50;z=-3.50;p=.00; r=-.30).
Similarly, S3 scores (Modelling digital age work and learning) of the teachers who use ICT in all the D-C-MA-P processes were found to be higher; at medium effect size than those who use it only in in planning and preparation (U=793.00;z=-3.55;p=.00; r=-.31), at medium effect size than those who use ICT only in measurement-assessment process (U=455.50;z=-3.57;p=.00; r=-.37) and at medium effect than the teachers who make use of ICT only both in planning and in the course of instruction (U=103.50;z= -2.86; p=.00; r=-.44).

Discussion, Conclusion and Implications
So long as research that aims to define the qualifications of the individuals who will form the foundation of future generations is carried out, research into the qualifications of the teachers who will guide and direct them into the future will also continue to be conducted.The efforts of the Ministry of Education (MEB, 2008) to define the competencies of teachers, the emphasis attached by the Council of Higher Education and the World Bank (1999) on the accreditation and standards in the education of teachers are of great importance in terms of a qualitative education and an effective learning-teaching process provided by the prospective teachers to properly equip learners for the 21 st century.
It is observed that, taking the scores of ETSSE and those of the sub-dimensions in the present research into account, the ETSSE scores of teachers turned out to be high.This result is similar to the one obtained by Çoklar (2008) in the ETSSE research carried out with the prospective teachers studying in different branches.Besides, Şirin and Duman (2013) also found similar results in their research in which they showed that prospective teachers who studied in the final year in the department of physical education and sports had high self-efficacy in respect of educational technology standards.Similarly, in a study he carried out in a population across Turkey, Şimşek (2016) found that prospective teachers had a high level of self-efficacy in respect of technological and pedagogical knowledge in their respective branch regarding ISTE standards.These results show that teachers and prospective teachers assess their capacity to meet the standards of educational technology in a positive manner.This fact confirmed by many researchers can be considered as a positive factor in terms of competencies teachers must have in this 21 st century.However, the present research has shown that ICT usage leaves much to be desired in the educational processes such as planning and preparation for the lesson, during the class, design of lesson content, measurement and assessment and it is used in lower degrees in two or more of these processes.As ETSSE contains statements about self-efficacy of teachers, their perception indicating a high capacity certainly provides valuable information for researchers, but it does not give an exact insight to assess to what extent they actually possess this capacity.The responses teachers gave in the present research in respect of ICT usage in educational processes provided important data, though to a partial extent, in terms of implementation of educational technology standards by them and further research is needed which handle the ETSSE self-efficacy of teachers in an integrated manner to gain more insight into the actual situation.
Even though ETSSE scores of teachers are high in general, examining the average values of the individual responses given to the scale items, it is observed that teachers do not feel themselves to be fully competent in enabling students to use diverse digital tools to interact with each other.Besides, the results suggest that teachers also need to be trained in respect of creation technology-based learning settings where students can actively follow their individual development.In addition to this, lower average values in the items such as formation of e-mail groups and interaction with teachers from different cultures give rise to the assumption that it would be better to provide them training covering these items as well.
A review of teachers' ETSSE scores by gender reveals that their scores in the sub-dimension of (S3) ''Modelling digital age work and learning'' show a statistically significant difference in favour of male participants at medium effect size.This results leads to the assumption that, as this dimension includes items regarding effective technology usage, transfer of technological knowledge and usage of new technological tools, female teachers feel themselves to be less competent in respect of technological processes.This result also shows similarity to the results obtained by Çoklar (2008) who found that prospective male teachers felt themselves to be more competent in terms of technological processes and notions.These results demonstrate that male teachers and prospective male teachers perceive themselves to be more competent than their female colleagues in meeting the older and current technological standards, making use of technological processes within the framework of the work and learning understanding of digital age, which indicates a differentiation that supports the fact that men currently feel themselves more competent than women in terms of technology usage.Thus it becomes evident that prospective female teachers need to be provided support mechanisms that would enable them to improve their technological knowledge.However, the fact that there is no difference in ETSSE scores shows that female and male teachers evaluate themselves in the similar way with respect to technology usage in pedagogical settings.Besides, it is a fact that ETSSE handles the technology in an integrated manner with pedagogy and content knowledge in terms of reaching the educational objectives.From this point of view, it is observed that female and male teachers have similar competency perceptions.
In this research, the scores of teachers with 1-5 years of experience in ETSSE and (S3) ''Modelling digital age work and learning'' were found to be significantly higher than those with an experience of 16-20 years.Besides, the scores of the same group in the dimension of (S2) namely ''Designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments'' were also significantly higher than the scores of those having 11-15 years of experience.Even though all the groups have obtained high average scores, it is seen that the teachers in their first years of experience in the profession have higher scores than those with 11-15 and 16-20 years of experience in terms of ''modelling digital age work and learning'' and ''designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments.''It is probable that these teachers who come from a younger generation that has the possibility to benefit from digital tools and sources, and more current training systems can feel themselves more competent regards technology usage in educational settings.Prensky (2001) suggests that the digital life of digital immigrants and their students, digital natives as he put it, have significantly changed.However, another important result the research has provided is that the teachers with an experience of more than 20 years show no difference in ETSSE and sub-dimensions.The teachers in this group and their ETSSE dimensions can be subjected to a qualitative examination to get an insight into this situation.In meeting technological standards it is essential to make use of the educational potential of digital technologies.Groups with substantial pedagogical experience can effectively use these technologies in the educational environment.Nonetheless, the fact that while ETSSE scores of the group with more than 20 years of experience have no difference in relation to other groups, and that the scores of the group with 1-5 years of experience show differences in some dimensions with respect to the scores of the groups with 11-15 and 16-20 years of experience points to a need to examine the extent of the effect of ETSSE on technological or pedagogical knowledge.
The ETSSE scores of Information Technology teachers in the sub-dimensions of S1, S2, S3 and S5 were found to be higher in terms statistical significance than the scores of teachers serving in the branches of both science and maths and verbal-social sciences.It is normal that the teachers serving in the branch of Information Technology have higher ETSSE scores; their course content, source and tools are based on technology and they receive branch-specific education in the curriculum.However, it is remarkable that, in a mass of data collected from 10 different branches, the scores of teachers in ETSSE and the dimensions of S1, S2, S3 and S5 have significantly higher scores than the teachers serving in the branches of science-maths and verbal-social sciences.Compared with previous research, this result shows parallels with the results obtained by Şimşek (2016).He found that the prospective teachers trained in the branches of Turkish, and Turkish Language and Literature had lower scores compared to other teaching branches in Turkey in terms of self-efficacy of technological and pedagogical branch knowledge he defined within the context of educational technology standards.Çoklar (2008) also demonstrated that the prospective teachers schooled to serve in the branch of mathematics had lower educational technology self-efficacy scores than the teachers in other branches both in overall scoring and in sub-dimensions.Becker (2001) showed in a survey he conducted with more than 4000 teachers in the USA that teachers serving in the branches of social sciences and mathematics used computer in the class less frequently.That the teachers in these groups have to teach more classes in secondary and high schools compared with other branches in terms of number of compulsory teaching hours is a fact that needs to be investigated by further research.In conclusion, in terms of ETSSE scores, differences have been found among teaching branches.
The results of the regression analysis made for the prediction of ETSSE reveals that the variables in connection with technology usage in educational settings and the competency of class material development by using technology have a significant relation in explaining ETSSE.In a study he conducted with 2147 secondary and high school teachers, Ursavaş (2014) modelled the appreciation and usage of technology through teachers and demonstrated that intrinsic motivation was the factor that affected the technology usage of teachers at most whereby the attitude to use technology emerged as the second most important factor in this sense.Tondeur, van Braak, Sang, Voogt, Fisser and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2012) who reviewed the previous qualitative research regarding the training of prospective teachers into educational processes through technology integration found that authentic technology experiences (material development, deliberate learning) played a significant role in this sense.It is thought that the competency of developing class material by making use of technology is an important factor in connection with the dimension of ''designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments'' in ETSSE.In this dimension teachers design, develop and present specific learning activities integrated with contemporary learning tools and sources in order that an effective learning can be realized.Other researchers suggest that, besides their actual experience, teachers should also have authentic learning experience to meet the standards of their own branch and those of technology so that they can realize such a learning environment (Cennamo, Ross & Ertmer, 2010).Based on the results, it can be concluded that the attitude to use technology in education and development of class materials do play an important role in explaining the ETSSE.
Research results show that ETSSE scores of teachers with respect to school level and degree of learning show no significant difference.Çakır and Oktay (2013) also found no significant difference between the levels of technology usage in education by primary and secondary school teachers.They further demonstrated that the teachers with graduate degree were more motivated in terms of attitude towards technology than the teachers with other academic degrees, whereby they found, on the other hand, that there was no significant difference in terms of technology usage.Even though ETSSE does not have a technology-centred structure, it advocates effective usage of technology in terms of facilitating learning.Our research found no difference between the ETSSE scores of teachers with graduate degree and those of the teachers having undergraduate degree, a result which can be attributed to the average scores of the teachers with graduate degree in ETSSE and sub-dimensions at the level of 'agree'.
Another important result of our research indicates that teachers mostly use ICT in planning and preparation of the course (25.10 %) and in the course of instruction (22.90 %).The scores which the teachers using ICT in all the processes of education obtained in the dimension of S2, namely "Designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments", were shown to be significantly higher than the scores of the teachers who use ICT only in planning and preparation, only in designing the course content, only in the course of instruction and only in measurement-assessment processes.So, we can conclude that the teachers who use ICT in several processes have a higher level of self-efficacy than those who use it only in one process in terms of designing learning settings and assessment activities.Similarly, ETSSE scores of those who use ICT in all the processes are higher than others except for the ones who use it only in the course of instruction, a result that demonstrates that the teachers who generally use ICT only in the class also have high ETSSE scores.Besides, the scores of the teachers who use ICT only in planning and preparation of a course, only in designing the course content and only in measurement-assessment processes in ETSSE and the dimensions of S1, S2 and S3 were found to be significantly lower.Considering this variable in a general sense, we come to the conclusion that ETSSE scores of those who use ICT in all the class processes are higher than those who make use of it only in one or several processes.
Overall results of the present research have shown that the dimension of ''modelling digital age work and learning'', including statements about effective usage of technology, shows significant differences based on gender variable in favour of male teachers.ETSSE scores of the teachers serving in the branch of Science and Mathematics and those who teach in Verbal-Social Sciences have lower scores compared with other branches.ETSSE scores showed no difference in terms of having an undergraduate or graduate degree or serving in a high school or secondary school.Depending on professional experience, on the other hand, ETSSE scores of teachers with 1-5 years of experience and those of the ones with an experience spanning over 11-15 and 16-20 years showed a difference in favour of the ones having 1-5 years of experience.The results of the regression analysis conducted for the prediction of ETSSE demonstrate that the variables of attitude to use technology in education and development of course material by making use of technology have a significant relation in explaining ETSSE.In conclusion, the research has shown that ETSSE scores of teachers who use ICT in all the processes of education (planning course, designing the course content, in the course of instruction, measurement and assessment) are higher than the scores of teachers who use it only in one or several processes.
That self-efficacy scores of teachers in terms of the educational technology standards were found to be high at the level of "Agree" is an encouraging fact especially in terms of a successful execution of the related investments of the institutions in this field like the MoNE and also in respect of teaching skills that equip teachers in line with the requirements of the 21 st century.However, it should always be kept in mind that the studies researching self-efficacy are judgements regarding competency capacity in certain fields and the expected effects and the actual situation should therefore be always subjected to a continual comparison.Hence, many studies investigating the self-efficacy of teachers or prospective teachers in terms of ETSSE show results which indicate higher levels in this field.Other results of previous research indicating different self-efficacy levels in terms of certain features can provide guidance for further research.Besides, further research can be conducted that further investigate the items with lower self-efficacy scores and learning-teaching settings can be initiated to improve such low self-efficacy perceptions.Besides, competencies towards educational technology standards can be subjected to further research with technology integration models in different educational settings, especially to define the competency levels of teachers in practical performance.
was used to define the Educational Technology Standards Self-Efficacy.The measurement tool consists of 5 sub-dimensions: S1.Facilitating and inspiring student learning and creativity, S2.Designing and developing digital age learning experiences and assessments, S3.Modelling digital age work and learning, S4.Promoting and modelling digital citizenship and responsibility, S5.Engaging in professional growth and leadership.
a.In planning and preparing for the course (P) b.In the course of instruction (using methods and techniques) (C) c.In designing course content (D) d.In measurement and assessment (MA) Table 6.Usage of ICT by Teachers in Educational Processes.course content -In the course of instruction -Planning (D-C-P) 14 3.30Those who use it in all the processes (D-C-MA-

Table 1 .
Demographic Characteristics of the Participants.

Table 2 .
The Average Scores of Teachers in ETSSE and its Sub-Dimensions.

Table 3 .
5 Items with the Highest and Lowest Scores in Respect of Average Responses

Table 4 .
Kruskall Wallis -H Test Results of ETSSE Scores by Branches.

Table 4 .
Kruskall Wallis -H Test Results by Professional Experiences.

Table 5 .
The Results of the Multiple Regression Analysis Regarding ETSSE Prediction.

Table 7 .
Results of Kruskall Wallis -H test in Respect of ICT Usage by Teachers in Educational Processes.